Falls of Mughal
Political Formations in Eighteenth Century: During the first half of the 18th century, many significant developments took place in the subcontinent. The boundaries of the Mughal Empire were reshaped by the emergence of a number of independent kingdoms. In major parts of eastern India, another power, the British had successfully gained control by 1765. Within a short span of time the political scenario in the 18th century India changed quite dramatically.
The Crisis of the Empire
The Mughal Empire started facing a lot of crises towards the end of the 17th century. The following were responsible for the same:Aurangzeb’s Exploits in Deccan: He had caused depletion of the military and financial resources of his empire by fighting a long war in the Deccan. The efficiency of the imperial administration broke down under his successors.
Powerful mansabdars and nobles: The later Mughal emperors found it increasingly difficult to keep a check on their powerful mansabdars. Nobles appointed as governors often controlled the offices of revenue and also the military administration. This gave them extraordinary powers in the political, economic and military aspects of vast regions of the empire. There was a fall in the periodic remission of revenue to the capital because of the consolidation of control over the provinces by the governors.
Peasants and zamindars: They added to the problems by rebelling in many parts of northern and western India. These were caused by:
- The pressures of mounting taxes
- The attempts by the powerful chieftains to consolidate their own positions.
Challenging groups: Though such challenges existed even before, the current challenges were of a higher degree. In other words, the groups were successful in seizing the economic resources of the emperors of the regions to consolidate their positions.
The successors of Aurangzeb failed to arrest the gradual shifting of political and economic authority into the hands of provincial governors, local chieftains and other groups.
Plunder: The ruler of Iran, Nadir Shah sacked and plundered the city of Delhi in 1739 and took away immense amounts of wealth. A series of plundering raids by the Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali, followed. He invaded north India five times between 1748 and 1761.
Competition amongst different noble groups: This further weakened the already dwindling empire. They were divided into two major factions: the Iranis and the Turanis. The later Mughal emperors became the puppets in the hands of either of these groups for a long time. The humiliation showed its ugliest form when the nobles assassinated/blinded some Mughal emperors. Farrukh Siyar (1713 – 1719) and Alamgir II (1754 – 1759) were assassinated, while Ahmad Shah (1748 – 1754) and Shah Alam II (1759 – 1816) were blinded by their nobles.
Rises of New States
When the Mughal emperors’ authority declined; the governors of large provinces, subadars and the great zamindars consolidated their authority in different parts of the subcontinent. During the 18th century, the Mughal Empire gradually fragmented into a number of independent regional states. These states can be broadly divided into three overlapping groups:
- Old Mughal provinces states: These included Awadh, Bengal and Hyderabad. Though these were extremely powerful and quite independent, the rulers did not break their ties with the Mughal emperor.
- States which had enjoyed considerable independence under the Mughals as watan jagirs. Rajput principalities were an example of this.
- States under the control of the Marathas, Sikhs and others like Jats. These were of differing sizes and had seized their independence from the Mughals after an armed struggle for a long time.
1.Awadh
The Old Mughal Provinces: Three states stand out very prominently amongst the states that were carved out of the old Mughal provinces in the 18th century. These states were founded by members of the high Mughal nobility who had been governors of large provinces. These states and their founders are as under:
- Awadh: Sa’adat Khan
- Bengal: Murshid Quli Khan
- Hyderabad: Asaf Jah
All the above founders had occupied high mansabdari positions and enjoyed the trust and confidence of the emperors. The founders of Hyderabad and Bengal held a zat ranking of 7000 each, whereas Sa’adat Khan, the founder of Awadh had a zat ranking of 6000.
The founder of Awadh, Burhan-ul-Mulk Sa’adat Khan was appointed its subadar in 1722. It was one of the most important states to emerge out of the break-up of the Mughal Empire. It had the following features:
- It was a prosperous region controlling a rich alluvial Ganga plain.
- It was the main trade route between north India and Bengal.
Burhan-ul-Mulk also held the combined offices of political (subadari), financial (diwani) and military (faujdari) affairs of the province of Awadh.
Methods to reduce Mughal influence
He managed to reduce the Mughal influence by:
- Reducing the number of office holders (jagirdars) appointed by the Mughals.
- Reducing the size of the jagirs.
- Appointing his own loyal servants in the vacant positions.
The accounts of the jagirdars were strictly checked to prevent cheating and the revenues of all districts were reassessed by the officials appointed by the Nawab’s court. He also seized a number of Rajput zamindaris and also the agriculturally fertile lands of the Afghans of Rohilkhand.
Mutual interest: state and land collectors
The state was dependent on local bankers and mahajans for loans. The right to collect tax was sold to the highest bidders. These ‘revenue farmers’ (called ijaradars) agreed to pay the state a fixed sum of money. The local bankers guaranteed the payment of this contracted amount to the state. In turn, the revenue-farmers were given considerable liberty in the assessment and collection of taxes.These developments led to new social groups like the moneylenders and bankers influencing the management of the state’s revenue system for the first time.
2.Bengal & Hydrerabad
Nawab of Bengal: Under Murshid Quli Khan, Bengal broke away from Mughal control. He was appointed as the naib, deputy to the governor of Bengal. Though he was never a subadar, he very quickly seized all the power that went with that office. He also commanded the revenue administration of the state, like the rulers of Awadh and Hyderabad.
Methods to reduce Mughal influence
He managed to reduce the Mughal influence by
- Transferring all Mughal jagirdars to Orissa.
- Ordering a major reassessment of the revenues of Bengal- Revenue was collected from zamindars, in cash with great strictness. This forced the zamindars to borrow money from bankers and moneylenders. Those who were not able to pay were force to sell their lands to bigger zamindars.
There was a lot of change amongst the zamindars caused by the formation of a regional state in 18th century Bengal. The close connection between the state and bankers was evident in Bengal during the rule of Alivardi Khan. The banking house of Jagat Seth became extremely prosperous during his reign.
Hyderabad
The founder of Hyderabad state, Nizam-ul Mulk Asaf Jah (1724-1748), was one of the most powerful members in the court of the Mughal emperor Farrukh Siyar. Initially he was entrusted with the governorship of Awadh, and later he got the charge of the Deccan. During 1720-22, as the Mughal governor of the Deccan provinces, he had already gained control over its political and financial administration. He became the actual ruler of the region by taking advantage of the turmoil in the Deccan and the competition amongst the court nobility.Asaf Jah
He brought skilled soldiers and administrators from northern India, who welcomed the new opportunities in the south. He appointed mansabdars and granted jagirs. Though still a servant of the Mughal emperor, he functioned quite independently without seeking any directions from Delhi or facing any interference. The mughal emperor merely confirmed the decisions already taken by him.Hyderabad was constantly struggling against the Marathas in the west and the Telugu warrior chiefs (nayaks) of the plateau. The upcoming powerful group, the British, checked Asaf Jah’s ambition to control the rich textile-producing areas of the Coromandel Coast in the east.
There are three common features in all the above three states:
- Although many of the larger states were established by erstwhile Mughal nobles they were highly suspicious of some of the administrative systems that they had inherited. Particularly this was true about the jagirdari system.
- Regarding tax collection, they contracted with revenue-farmers for revenue collection; instead of depending on the officers of the states. The practice of ijaradari which spread all over India in the 18th century, was disapproved of by the Mughals.
- There was an emerging relationship with rich bankers and merchants. These people lent money to revenue farmers, received land as security and through their own agents collected taxes from these lands.
Rajputs and Sikhs
The Watan Jagirs of the Rajputs: Many Rajput kings, particularly belonging to Amber and Jodhpur had served extremely well under the Mughals. In exchange, they were allowed to enjoy considerable autonomy in their watan jagirs. These rulers, in the 18th century, attempted to extend their control over adjacent areas. The ruler of Jodhpur, Ajit Singh, was involved in the factional politics at the Mughal court.
These Rajput families were influential. They claimed the subadari of the rich provinces of Gujarat and Malwa. Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur held the governorship of Gujarat whereas Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber was governor of Malwa. In 1713, these offices were renewed by Emperor Jahandar Shah. As an effort to extend their territory, they also seized portions of imperial territories neighbouring their watans:
- Nagaur was conquered and annexed to the house of Jodhpur.
- Amber seized many portions of Bundi.
Sawai Raj Singh founded his new capital at Jaipur. He was given the subadari of Agra in 1722. There was severe pressure on these principalities by Maratha campaigns in Rajasthan from the 1740s. This checked their further expansion.
Seizing independence
The following sections deal with the states that had already seized their independence from the Mughals and were under the control of the Sikhs, Marathas and JatsThe Sikhs
The organization of Sikhs into a political entity in the 17th century helped in regional state building in Punjab. Guru Gobind Singh fought many battles against the Rajputs and the Mughals, both before and after the institution of Khalsa in 1699. After his death in 1708, the Khalsa:- Rose in revolt against the mughal authority under Banda Bahadur’s (captured: 1715, executed: 1716) leadership.
- Declared their sovereign rule by striking coins in the name of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.
- Established their own administration between the Satluj and the Jamuna.
Bands of Sikhs
In the eighteenth century, the Sikhs organized themselves into a number of bands called jathas, and later on misls. These bands were under competent leaders. Their combined forces were called the grand army (dal khalsa). Collective decisions were taken by them after meeting at Amritsar at the time of Baisakhi and Diwali. These collective decisions were called ‘resolutions of the Guru (gurumatas)’. A system called rakhi was introduced which offered protection to the cultivators on the payment of a tax of 20% of the produce.Guru Gobind Singh
He had inspired the Khalsa with the belief that their destiny was to rule (raj karega khalsa). They were a well-knit organization and hence they could put up a tough and successful resistance to:- The Mughal governors and then to
- Ahmad Shah Abdali who had seized the rich province of Punjab and the Sarkar of Sirhind from the Mughals.
Spread of the territory
In the late 18th century, the territories under the Sikhs extended from the Indus to the Jamuna but they were divided under different rulers. Maharaja Ranjit Singh was one ruler who reunited these groups and established his capital at Lahore in 1799.
New States Jats
The Jats: The Jats were prosperous agriculturists. The towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh emerged as popular trading centres in the areas dominated by them. The Jats also consolidated their power during the late 17th and 18th centuries. They acquired control over the following areas, under their leader Churaman:
- The territories situated to the west of Delhi.
- By the 1680s, the region between the two imperial cities of Delhi and Agra.
Bharatpur
The kingdom of Bharatpur emerged as a strong state under Suraj Mal. Many of the city’s notables took refuge in Bharatpur when Nadir Shah sacked Delhi in 1739. His son Jawahir Shah; who had 30000 troops of his own, managed to hire another 20000 Maratha and 15000 Sikhs to fight the Mughals. The Bharatpur fort was built in a fairly traditional style.Dig
Here, the Jats built an elaborate garden palace combining styles seen at Amber and Agra. Its buildings were modeled on architectural forms which were first associated with royalty under Shah Jahan.
The French Revolution (1789 - 1794)
In the Western world, the system of the common people not having any say in the affairs of the government was a practice till the late 18th century. The American and the French revolutions challenged the social and political privilege enjoyed by the aristocrats. These transformed subjects into citizens.
The premise of the French revolution was that no group in the society should enjoy privileges based on birth. They demanded that:
- Social position should depend on merit.
- There should be equal laws and opportunities for all.
- The authority of the government should come from people who must possess the right to participate in its affairs.
